| Proto-Sinaitic script |
|---|
A specimen of Proto-Sinaitic script containing a phrase which may mean 'to Ba'alat'. The line running from the upper left to lower right may read mt l bclt.
|
| Type |
Abjad
|
|---|
| Languages | Northwest Semitic languages |
|---|
Time period
| 1700–1400 BCE |
|---|
Proto-Sinaitic is a Middle Bronze Age script attested in a very small collection of inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai Peninsula. Due to the extreme scarcity of Proto-Sinaitic signs, very little is known with certainty about the nature of the script. Because the script co-existed with Egyptian hieroglyphs, it is likely that it represented true writing, but this is by no means certain. It has been argued that Proto-Sinaitic was an alphabet and the ancestor of the Phoenician alphabet, from which nearly all modern alphabets descend.
There have been two major discoveries of inscriptions that may be in the Proto-Sinaitic script, the first in the winter of 1904–1905 in
Sinai by
Hilda and
Flinders Petrie, dated to circa 1700–1400 BCE, and more recently in 1999 in
Middle Egyptby
John and
Deborah Darnell, dated to the 18th century BCE.
[1]
§Serabit inscriptions[edit]
The Sinai inscriptions are best known from carved
graffiti and
votive texts from a mountain in the Sinai called
Serabit el-Khadim and its temple to the Egyptian goddess
Hathor (
ḥwt-ḥr). The mountain contained
turquoise mines which were visited by repeated expeditions over 800 years. Many of the workers and officials were from the
Nile Delta, and included large numbers of "Asiatics", speakers of the
Canaanite language that was ancestral to
Phoenician and
Hebrew, who had been allowed to settle the eastern Delta.
[1]
Most of the thirty or so inscriptions have been found among much more numerous
hieratic and
hieroglyphic inscriptions, scratched on rocks near and in the turquoise mines and along the roads leading to the temple. Four inscriptions have been found in the temple, on two small human statues and on either side of a small stone
sphinx. They are crudely done, suggesting that the workers who made them were illiterate apart from this script. In 1916,
Alan Gardiner, using sound values derived from the alphabet hypothesis, translated a collection of signs as לבעלת
l bʿlt (to the Lady)
[2] One of the instances of this collection of signs was on the small stone sphinx, which contained a bilingual inscription: The Egyptian reads
The beloved of Hathor, the mistress of turquoise, and according to Gardiner's translation, the Proto-Sinaitic reads
m’hb‘l (the beloved of the Lady;
m’hb beloved), with the final
t of
bʿlt (Lady) not surviving. Egyptologist
Orly Goldwasser believes the script was most likely invented during the reign of pharaoh
Amenemhet III of the Twelfth Dynasty.
[1]
The script has graphic similarities with the Egyptian
hieratic script, the less elaborate form of the
hieroglyphs. In the 1950s and 60s it was common to show the derivation of the Canaanite alphabet from hieratic, using
William Albright's interpretations of Proto-Sinaitic as the key. It was generally accepted that the language of the inscriptions was Semitic and that the script had a hieratic prototype. If correctly translated, the word
baʿlat (Lady) lends credence to the identification of the language as Semitic. However, the lack of further progress in decipherment casts doubt over the other suppositions, and the identification of the hieratic prototypes remains speculative.
[citation needed]
§Proto-Canaanite inscriptions[edit]
Only a few inscriptions have been found in
Canaan itself, dated from ca. the 17th century BCE. They are all very short, most consisting of only a couple of letters, and may have been written by Canaanite caravaners or soldiers from Egypt.
[1] They sometimes go by the name
Proto-Canaanite,
[3] although the term "Proto-Canaanite" is also applied to early Phoenician or Hebrew inscriptions.
[4]
The Phoenician alphabet was first uncovered in the 17th century, but up to the 19th century its origin was unknown. Scholars at first believed that the script was a direct variation of
Egyptian hieroglyphs.
[5] This idea was especially popular due to the recent decipherment of hieroglyphs. However, scholars could not find any link between the two writing systems. Certain scholars
[who?] hypothesized ties with
Hieratic,
Cuneiform, or even an independent creation, perhaps inspired by some other writing system. The theories of independent creation ranged from the idea of a single man conceiving it, to the
Hyksos people forming it from corrupt
Egyptian.
[6]
§Parent scripts[edit]
The Proto-Sinaitic script was in use from ca. 1850 BC in the Sinai by Canaanite speakers. There are sporadic attestations of very short Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions in Canaan in the late Middle and Late Bronze Age, but the script was not widely used until the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC. The oldest known inscription that goes by the name of Phoenician is the Ahiram epitaph, engraved on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram from c. 1200 BC.[7]
It has become conventional to refer to the script as "Proto-Canaanite" until the mid-11th century, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads, and as "Phoenician" only after 1050 BC.
[8]
§Spread of the alphabet and its social effects[edit]
The Phoenician adaptation of the alphabet was extremely successful, and variants were adapted around the Mediterranean from about the 9th century BC, notably giving rise to the
Greek,
Old Italic,
Anatolian and
Paleohispanic scripts. The alphabet's success was due in part to its phonetic nature; Phoenician was the first widely used script in which one sound was represented by one symbol. This simple system contrasted with the other scripts in use at the time, such as
Cuneiform and
Egyptian hieroglyphs, which employed many complex
characters and were difficult to learn.
[9]
Phoenician had long-term effects on the social structures of the civilizations which came in contact with it. As mentioned above, the script was the first widespread phonetic script. Its simplicity not only allowed it to be used in multiple languages, but it also allowed the common people to learn how to write. This upset the long-standing status of writing systems only being learned and employed by members of the royal and religious hierarchies of society, who used writing as an instrument of power to control access to information by the larger population.[12] The appearance of Phoenician disintegrated many of these class divisions, although many Middle Eastern kingdoms such as Assyria, Babylonia and Adiabene would continue to use cuneiform for legal and liturgical matters well into the Common Era.
§Wadi el-Hol inscriptions[edit]
|
| This article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2010) |
The Wadi el-Hol inscriptions (Arabic وادي الهول
Wādī al-Hawl 'Ravine of Terror') were carved on the stone sides of an ancient high-desert military and trade road linking
Thebes and
Abydos, in the heart of literate Egypt. They are in a
wadi in the
Qenabend of the Nile, at approx.
25°57′N 32°25′E, among dozens of hieratic and hieroglyphic inscriptions. The inscriptions are graphically very similar to the Serabit inscriptions, but show a greater hieroglyphic influence, such as a glyph for a man that was apparently not read alphabetically.
[1]
Traces of the 16 and 12 characters of the two Wadi el-Hol inscriptions. (Photos
here and
here)
H1 is a figure of celebration [Gardiner A28], whereas h2 is either that of a child [Gardiner A17] or of dancing [Gardiner A32]. If the latter, h1 and h2 may be graphic variants (such as two hieroglyphs both used to write the Canaanite word hillul "jubilation") rather than different consonants.
Hieroglyphs representing celebration, a child, and dancing respectively. The first appears to be the prototype for
h1, while the latter two have been suggested as the prototype for
h2.
Some scholars (Darnell
et al.) think that the רב
rb at the beginning of Inscription 1 is likely
rebbe (chief; cognate with
rabbi); and that the אל
’l at the end of Inscription 2 is likely
’el "(a) god". Brian Colless has published a translation of the text, in which some of the signs are treated as logograms (representing a whole word, not just a single consonant) or rebuses [Antiguo Oriente 8 (2010) 91] [V] “Excellent (R[’š]) banquet (mšt) of the celebration (H[illul]) of `Anat (`nt). ’El (’l) will provide (ygš) [H] plenty (rb) of wine (wn) and victuals (mn) for the celebration (H[illul]). We will sacrifice (ngt_) to her (h) an ox (’) and (p) a prime (R[’sh]) fatling (mX).” This interpretation fits into the pattern in some of the surrounding Egyptian inscriptions, with celebrations for the goddess Hathor involving inebriation.
§Alphabet hypothesis[edit]
Proto-Sinaitic is hypothesized to be an intermediate step between
Egyptian hieroglyphs and the
Phoenician alphabet. If this is the case, Proto-Sinaitic may be the first alphabet. According to the alphabet theory, the alphabet began with Proto-Sinaitic at the end of the Middle Bronze Age and split into the
South Arabian script and the
Proto-Canaanite script in the
Late Bronze Age. The Proto-Canaanite script would then have evolved into Phoenician proper by 1100 BCE.
[5] The theory centers on the idea that only the graphic form of the Proto-Sinaitic characters derive from Egyptian hieroglyphs, and that they were given the sound value of the first consonant of the Semitic translation of the hieroglyph. (Using a character for the first sound of its name is the
acrophonic principle.) For example, the hieroglyph for
pr "house" (a rectangle partially open along one side, "O1" in
Gardiner's sign list) was adopted to write Semitic
/b/, after the first consonant of
baytu, the Semitic word for "house".
[1]According to the alphabet hypothesis, the shapes of the letters would have evolved from Proto-Sinaitic forms into Phoenician forms, but the names of the letters would have remained the same. Below is a table showing selected Proto-Sinaitic signs and the proposed correspondences with Phoenician letters. Also shown are the sound values, names, and descendants of the Phoenician letters.
§See also
